中英雙語話歷史 第22期:東周(經濟發展)

Warring States period thinkers created four social classes that should be the theoretical framework for political thinking for the next two thousand years： scholars, peasants, craftsmen, and merchants.

戰國時期的思想家提出了士、農、工、商（四民）的劃分理論,爲其後2000多年的政治思想提供了理論框架。

As we can observe from these four categories, peasants, by far the largest section of the Chinese population still today, played an important role in political thinking.

在這些人中，農民對政治統治發揮着巨大的作用。

The peasantry did not only contribute the most part of the state income by taxes, but also served as laborers for state projects and as militia in the ever larger infantry units.

他們不僅要交租稅,保障政府的財政收人，還要因國家大興土木而服徭役,在日趨擴大的軍隊中服兵役。

The heaviest burden thus lay upon the shoulders of the farmers that were not only exploited by their own ruler but also had to suffer the inflictions of the intense warfare campaigns between the contending states.

他們不僅受到統治者的剝削，還要飽受戰亂之苦，負擔沉重。

In years of famine, peasants gave up their fields and engaged as craftsmen, petty traders or sold their labour force as day-la-borers. In the worst case, the whole peasant family sold themselves as slaves.

饑荒之年，農民無法種田，往往改做手藝人、小商販或出賣體力作傭工，最糟的情況下甚至還會賣身爲奴。

While during the Spring and Autumn period, only the state and the aristocracy owned slaves——either debt slaves or war prisoners—it was now possible for every wealthy household to acquire slaves.

春秋時期還只有國家和貴族才能擁有奴隸（包括債務奴隸和戰爭奴隸），戰國時每個富有之家都可以有奴隸。

It was especially the class of merchants that was able to accumulate extraordinary wealth by purchasing cheap and selling expensive.

特別是商人, 他們通過賤買貴賣積聚了大量財富。

The inter-state trade was of great importance and contributed to the cultural and economic flourishing at the end of the Warring States era.

戰國末年，諸侯國之間的貿易極爲重要，爲繁榮經濟、文化的發展做出了巨大貢獻。

The new class of rich merchants even gained access to important political posts that were hitherto reserved to members of the aristocracy.

新興的商人階級甚至可以謀取重要的官職。

The best example is the case of Lu Buwei, a wealthy merchant with an exceptional education background who helped to promote Prince Yiren of Qin who was exiled in Zhao to become heir apparent and later king of the state. Lu Buwei, member of the despised class of merchants, became chancellor of Qin.

呂不韋就是一個最好的例子。他憑藉自己特殊的教育背景幫助流亡在趙國的秦國公子異人成爲太子,後又成爲秦王，而呂不韋一一一個備受歧視的商人最終成爲秦的相國。

During the Warring States Period, iron farm tools were in common use, replacing wooden and stone implements, which not only helped to fell trees, construct water conservancy, reclaim wastelands and practice deep ploughing and intensive cultivation, but to promote the agriculture greatly as well.

戰國時，鐵製農具已代替木、石農具普遍用於生產之中，不僅有利於砍伐樹林、興修水利、開墾荒地和深耕細作，而且促進了農業生產的大發展。

When weeding, peasants paid special attention to tell the differences among various types of soil, so that they could select the suitable crops.

在深耕除草的同時，農民們注意識別土壤性質，因地制宜地選擇不同的作物進行種植。

The technique of fertilizing was improved, and a variety of manure, ranging from animal droppings to green manure and wood ashes was applied widely.

施肥技術提高，懂得用肥汁拌種，糞便、綠肥和灰肥被普遍施用。

At the same time, they began to give their attention to seeds selection, and plant disease and insect pets prevention. A new kind of farming method was introduced, which was convenient to ventilate the fields, and prevent water-logging. Peasants were good at breeding, weeding, intercropping and commanding farming season.

開始注意選擇籽種，防治蟲病，實行畦種法，便於通風排澇;善於培根、除草、間苗和掌握農時季節。

The system of twice ripeness in a year was spread，which raised the output per unit enormously.

普遍推廣一年兩熟制，大大提高了單位面積的年產量。

To assure the moisture of soil，Chinese farmers since oldest times built dykes and canals with small sluices, while the rulers of all states also took the development of water conservancy as one of the important measures to enrich countries. They would usually organize the digging of great canals from the rivers to the fields around the capital, like King Lianghui from Wei who had built a canal from the Yellow River to the capital Daliang (near modern Kaifeng in Henan).

爲保持土壤的水分，中國勞動人民很早就開始修築帶有水閥的溝渠。各國的統治者也把水利事業的發展看作是富國之道的重要措施之一，他們通常會組織人力開渠引水灌溉都城附近的田地。

In Sichuan (part of Qin state then), canals and waterways dotted the Chengdu Plain. Around the capital Xianyang (modern Xianyang in Shaanxi), the Qin King had built canals to fertilize the central region of Qin with the help of Zheng Guo, a famous water-work architect.

梁惠王開通了連接黃河與都城大梁（今河南開 封附近）的水渠,在四川（秦的蜀郡）的成都平原上溝渠星羅棋佈。秦又用水工鄭國在都城咸陽外築渠，灌溉秦中部地區。

These canals contributed to the richness of Qin.

鄭國爲秦的富強做出了重大貢獻。

Many rulers of various states employed political advisors who proposed methods for a successful eco-nomic policy, like the legist politician Guan Zhong in Qi , Li Kui in Wei, Shang Yan-gin Qin, and many advisors whose methods are described in the book Lushi Chunqiu .

各國國君還紛紛聘請謀士,他們都提出了發展經濟的成功政策，例如齊國的管仲，魏國的李悝，秦國的商鞅。他們的改革措施在《呂氏春秋》中都有記載。

The enhanced productivity of the peasant household allowed them even to sell some surplus on the markets.

生產力的提高 使農民有剩餘產品可交換。

The handicraft industry of the Warring States Period also got a rapid development with the significant technology improvement in iron-smelting, bronze wares casting, lacquer and cloth-weaving.

戰國時，手工業大大發展。冶鐵、青銅器鑄造、漆器、絲織業的生產水平都有顯着的提高。

Having mastered the casting technique of pig iron, in which high temperature water was used to deoxidize iron, handicraftsmen could forge high-carbonic steel applied to swords.

已經較好掌握了高溫液體還原法的生鐵冶鑄技術，能鍛打出用於劍身的高碳鋼。

Bronze wares were made in the method of smelting and welding.

青銅器的製作普遍使用熔鑄、焊接。

New techniques came up that covered the surface of the vessels with beautiful ornaments made of inlaying gold and silver. Exceptionally wonderful appearance of Warring States bronze vessels were created by the lost wax technique. All of these wares were light, small and exquisite with delicate and complicated patterns. The technique and art had reached a rather high level.

也出現了和金銀嵌錯和失蠟法等新工藝，產生了在銅器表面塗金、鎏金和刻紋工藝，器型輕薄靈巧，花紋細緻繁複, 具有高超的技術和藝術水平。

Glass composed of lead and barium was produced.

鉛鋇琉璃業已產生。

Lacquer-work had grown into an independent section. A wood roughcast was painted with a variety of bright and beautiful patterns in more than ten paintings like black, red, yellow, blue, purple and white etc.

漆器製造業成爲獨立的手工業部門，所造漆器以木爲胎，有黑、紅、黃、藍、紫、白等十多種顏色的漆，在器物上繪出各種光澤美麗的花紋。

Woven textiles of the Warring States period show a wide diversity in patterns and coloring, but also in weaving technique.

編織物的顏色和花紋以及編織工藝更爲多樣化。

With the development of handicraft industry, private entrepreneurs in some businesses were a-ble to acquire wealth and finances, like the salt producer Yi Dun of Lu, Widow Qing in the state of Qin owned mines producing cinnabar, ironworks of the families Kong and Zhou in Wei，and Guo Zong in the State of Zhao.

隨着手工業的發展,出現了一些私營大手工業主，如魯國煮鹽的猗頓,秦國巴地開採丹砂的 寡婦清，冶鐵業如魏國的孔家、卓家和趙國的郭縱等。

Increasing productivity and wealth led to a likewise rising marketability of agricultural and industrial goods that were offered and purchased in the markets in the large cities.

隨着生產力的提高和財富的增加，大城市的市場中可供交易的農產品、手工業品越來越多。

Goods from all over the country were traded along the canals and trade routes often passing through several different states before being sold in shops in capital markets.

全國各地的商品通過水路、陸路源源不斷地涌人都城中的市肆。

These shops were observed by a government official who had to collect taxes and to care for law and order.

市場中設有專人收稅，並維護治安。

Even estate like fields and houses were tradable.

各種不動產，如土地、房屋也可以買賣。

The existence and the development of a market economy made it necessary to produce more coins and a standardized currency.

經濟的存在與發展需要更多的貨幣和統一的貨幣制度。

The old cowry shells (Beibi) were replaced by spade-shaped copper coins (Bubi), large specimen were used in the Central Plain while smaller types of the spade coins were produced in the state of Jin and its three successors(Zhao, Wei, Han ). In the states of Yan and Qi coins in the shape of a knife (Daobi) was issued.

布幣取代了舊時的貝幣。中原地區使用大的鏟形布幣，晉及其後的趙、衛、韓三國使用的是小的鏟形布幣，齊、燕兩國主要是用刀形的刀幣。

On most coins the name of the mint was given where the coins were cast.

大多數錢幣上都鑄造有地名。

Until the 19th century coins in China were not minted but cast. The states of Zhou，Zhao，Wei and Han were the first to issue round coins with a round hole (yuankong yuanqian), from the 3rd century B. C. Qi and Yan issued round coins with a square hole (fangkong yuanqian ), a shape that became popular four bronze (copper) coins until the end of the empire in 1911.

周、趙、衛、韓 四國是最早使用圓形圓孔錢的。公元前3世紀，齊國和燕國開始使用圓形方孔錢，這種圓形方孔錢後來相當流行，一直使用到1911年，中國的封建王朝結束。

In the southern state of Chu a different kind of coin was in use, a round type with a protruding “ant nose”（Yibiqian).

南方的楚國主要是用形似貝殼的蟻鼻錢。

Larger sums were paid or stored as gold bars (jinding) or <4gold cakes^ (jinbing), especially in the state of Chu. Merchants like Bai Gui and Zi Gong could accumulate exorbitant wealth from the interstate trade with different goods.

大量的金錠和金餅被用於流通或貯存，特別是楚國的商人白圭和子貢更是通過諸侯國間的貨物交易積聚了萬貫家財。

The most prosperous cities were seen at Linzi (modern Zibo in Shandong), capital of Qi and home for about seventy thousand households, and Ying (modern Jiangling in Hubei), capital of Chu.

當時最爲繁華的城市是楚國的都城郢（今湖北江陵）和齊國的都城臨淄（今山東臨淄），其居民多達70000戶。

Many new towns were founded like Handan (modern Handan in Hebei), capital of Zhao.

同時許多新城市也出現了，如趙國的都城邯鄲。